Diplomacy of the First World War

From a Balkan Crisis to a World War

The First World War grew out of a confrontation between Austria-Hungary and Serbia after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand at Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. Europe was already divided by rival alliances, imperial competition, and fears about the balance of military power. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July; Russian mobilization and German declarations of war on Russia and France widened the conflict. Germany’s invasion of neutral Belgium brought Britain into the war on 4 August. [1] [2]

British consular and embassy telegrams carried the first reports from Sarajevo and Vienna to London, where officials circulated and annotated incoming dispatches. Foreign Secretary Edward Grey usually dealt with foreign ambassadors in London, while British representatives abroad reported their conversations with ministers and other envoys. These exchanges conveyed warnings and tested intentions amid conflicting security commitments and preparations for war. [1]

Neutrality under Pressure

The United States initially remained neutral, but Britain’s blockade and Germany’s submarine campaign both challenged American commerce. The Arabic crisis in 1915 and the Sussex pledge in 1916 brought negotiations over attacks on neutral ships, assurances, responsibility, and future conduct. [3] [4]

On 31 January 1917, German ambassador Johann von Bernstorff delivered a note announcing renewed unrestricted submarine warfare from the following day. Wilson broke diplomatic relations on 3 February, but did not yet seek war. A separate secret message, the Zimmermann Telegram, proposed a German alliance with Mexico if war with the United States occurred; British intelligence intercepted it and passed it to Washington. Further sinkings and the disclosed proposal sharpened the crisis. Congress declared war on Germany on 6 April. [4] [5]

Negotiating an End While Armies Fought

War also changed the governments able to make peace. Bolshevik Russia left the conflict through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. Wilson’s Fourteen Points, announced that January, proposed principles for a wider settlement, including more open diplomacy and an association of nations. [2] [6] [7]

Neutral representatives carried proposals across broken diplomatic relations. Sweden transmitted Austria-Hungary’s appeals to Washington; Switzerland handled exchanges with Germany. On 5 November, Secretary of State Robert Lansing asked Swiss minister Hans Sulzer to convey the Allied response to Germany. The Allies accepted a basis for peace but reserved their position on freedom of the seas and required compensation for civilian damage. Lansing also notified Germany that Marshal Ferdinand Foch could receive accredited envoys to communicate armistice terms. The Paris Peace Conference would negotiate the treaties after the fighting stopped. [7] [8]

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• The United Kingdom and the United States
• Germany and the United States
• Turkey and the United States
• Russia and the United States
• France and the United States
• Italy and the United States
• Japan and the United States
• French Republic
• United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
• Italian Republic
• Japan
• Federal Republic of Germany
• Russian Federation
• Republic of Türkiye