Warren G. Harding

Warren Gamaliel Harding, an Ohio newspaper publisher and senator, won the presidency in 1920 promising a return to “normalcy” after war and domestic upheaval. He served from 1921 until his death in 1923. His administration rejected membership in the League of Nations but remained active in diplomacy, especially through Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes. ¹

The Washington Conference of 1921–1922 sought to limit naval competition and reduce tensions in the Pacific. The Five-Power Treaty restricted major warships, the Four-Power Treaty established consultation over Pacific disputes, and the Nine-Power Treaty affirmed principles of Chinese sovereignty and equal commercial opportunity. These agreements attempted to manage competition among the leading naval powers without a general collective security commitment. ²

Harding also pursued settlement of European war debts and opportunities for American trade and investment. His government insisted that Allied obligations to the United States should be repaid rather than canceled. The policy left American financial interests closely connected to Europe’s recovery and reparations system, despite the rejection of League membership. ²

At home, Harding supported lower taxes, reduced federal expenditure, a national budget system, and high protective tariffs. The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 restricted immigration by nationality. He also commuted some wartime political sentences and spoke against racial injustice without securing effective federal protection. Corruption in parts of his administration, most famously the Teapot Dome oil leases, became a major scandal, with much of the public reckoning occurring after his death. ^{3, 1}