John Adams

John Adams represented Massachusetts in the Continental Congress, served as a diplomat in Europe, and became George Washington’s vice president before winning the presidency in 1796. He had helped negotiate the peace ending the American Revolution and served as the first American minister to Britain after independence. His presidency from 1797 to 1801 was dominated by deteriorating relations with France and disputes within his own Federalist Party. ¹

French seizures of American merchant ships intensified after Jay’s Treaty drew the United States closer to Britain. When American envoys encountered demands for payments before negotiations could proceed, the disclosure became known as the XYZ Affair. Congress expanded military preparations, established the Navy Department, and authorized operations against French vessels. The resulting Quasi-War was fought at sea without a formal declaration of war. ²

Adams nevertheless reopened diplomacy despite opposition from Federalists who wanted a more confrontational policy. Negotiators reached the Convention of 1800 with Napoleon Bonaparte’s government, ending the conflict and the old Franco-American alliance. The settlement reduced the immediate danger of a wider war but deepened Adams’s split with Alexander Hamilton and other party leaders as he sought reelection. ²

Domestic measures taken during the crisis sharply restricted political opposition. Adams signed the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798; the Sedition Act enabled prosecutions of critics of the federal government, while the naturalization law lengthened the period required for citizenship. Taxes to finance military preparations also provoked resistance. Thomas Jefferson defeated Adams in 1800, and the transfer of power in 1801 brought the first change of governing party under the Constitution. ^{3, 1}