Saddam Hussein

Saddam Hussein (1937–2006) was president of Iraq from 1979 until the overthrow of his government in 2003. He rose through the Arab nationalist Baʿath Party and became a principal figure in the regime established in 1968 under Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr. He helped direct the nationalization of oil and used rising revenues for military expansion, infrastructure, education and health services. These programs accompanied the growth of a coercive security apparatus. On assuming the presidency in 1979, he purged the party leadership and consolidated personal control over the state. ^{1, 2, 3}

His foreign policy sought regional leadership and greater Iraqi power in the Persian Gulf. In September 1980 he invaded Iran amid territorial disputes, hostility to Iran’s revolutionary government and expectations that the upheaval there had weakened it. The war instead became a prolonged struggle that exhausted both societies and left Iraq heavily indebted. Iraqi forces used chemical weapons, including against Iranian troops. The fighting ended in a 1988 ceasefire without the decisive gains Saddam had sought. ^{1, 4}

Repression at home was inseparable from the regime’s military power. In March 1987 Saddam signed a decree giving Ali Hassan al-Majid sweeping authority over military, security and civilian institutions in northern Iraq. The ensuing campaigns against Kurdish communities included mass executions, forced displacement, village destruction and chemical attacks. Human Rights Watch’s investigation of the 1988 Anfal campaign, drawing on captured Iraqi documents and survivor testimony, concluded that the government had committed genocide against the Kurds. ^{5, 6}

In August 1990 Iraq invaded Kuwait after disputes over war debts, oil production and territory. Saddam’s refusal to withdraw brought a broad international coalition against him; the 1991 Gulf War expelled Iraqi forces from Kuwait. He survived in office, and his forces violently suppressed postwar uprisings. Iraq then faced prolonged international sanctions, reparations obligations and intrusive weapons inspections. These restrictions and repeated confrontations with the United States defined the remaining years of his rule. ⁷

A United States-led invasion removed his government in 2003, and American forces captured him that December. A 2005 U.S. inquiry reported that the central prewar claims about Iraqi nuclear, biological and chemical weapons had not been confirmed after the invasion. The Iraqi High Tribunal later convicted Saddam of crimes against humanity in the Dujail case, and he was executed on December 30, 2006. Human Rights Watch documented serious flaws in the proceedings. His execution occurred before a verdict against him in the separate Anfal prosecution. ^{1, 8, 9}