Theodore Roosevelt

Theodore Roosevelt became president after William McKinley’s assassination in 1901 and served until 1909. A former New York governor, assistant secretary of the navy, and officer in the war with Spain, he regarded American power as a necessary instrument of international influence. He also expanded the presidency’s role in economic regulation and conservation. ¹

Roosevelt supported Panama’s separation from Colombia in 1903 after a canal treaty failed in the Colombian Senate. The ensuing agreement gave the United States extensive control over a canal zone. In the Caribbean, the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine asserted a right of American intervention when disorder or financial default might invite European action. A customs receivership in the Dominican Republic and renewed intervention in Cuba gave that claim practical effect. ²

Roosevelt also used negotiation to manage great power competition. He mediated the settlement of the Russo-Japanese War in 1905 and received the Nobel Peace Prize the following year. His administration maintained American rule in the Philippines and sought accommodation with Japan while limiting Japanese immigration through the Gentlemen’s Agreement. The Great White Fleet’s world cruise displayed the reach of the enlarged American navy. ²

His domestic “Square Deal” included antitrust enforcement, stronger railroad regulation, food and drug legislation, and federal involvement in resolving the 1902 coal strike. He expanded national forests and other conservation measures, often amid conflicts over land use and federal authority. His record also included racial discrimination and acceptance of imperial hierarchies. After leaving office, he broke with William Howard Taft and ran as the Progressive presidential candidate in 1912. ^{3, 1}