Ethiopia and the United States

Treaty Relations and a Threat to Sovereignty

Ethiopia and the United States began formal relations with a commercial treaty signed by Menelik II and Robert P. Skinner on 27 December 1903. The agreement protected trade and property and provided for mutually acceptable representatives. It took effect after American ratification was notified to Menelik on 2 August 1904. [1] [2]

Italy’s invasion in 1935 threatened Ethiopia’s independent statehood. The League of Nations failed to stop the conquest. [6]

The American legation opened in Addis Ababa in 1909. Italy’s conquest interrupted that presence: American representation was withdrawn in 1937, although Washington never publicly recognized Italian authority in Ethiopia. The American legation reopened in August 1943; Ethiopia established its resident Washington legation that November. Both missions became embassies in 1949, with the American ambassador’s credentials in June and Ras Imru’s in Washington in September. [2]

Imperial Cooperation and Revolutionary Realignment

Haile Selassie sought to turn the renewed relationship into investment and practical assistance. In his 1954 White House conversation with Eisenhower, he requested private American capital, port development, coastal patrol vessels, and help expanding Ethiopian Airlines. Eisenhower agreed to further official discussions but made no specific commitments. [3]

The overthrow of Haile Selassie in 1974 transformed the political basis of cooperation. Washington initially tried to maintain relations with the new rulers, but Mengistu’s consolidation of power brought a turn toward the Soviet Union. Somalia’s invasion of the Ogaden in 1977 drew Soviet supplies and Cuban troops to Ethiopia. American officials debated whether and how to oppose that intervention, linking a regional war to wider arguments about détente. Ethiopia’s realignment made the former American security partnership increasingly difficult to sustain. [7]

Cooperation contracted under the Derg. In April 1977, Ethiopian troops took over the American communications site at Kagnew, and American officials negotiated personnel withdrawals, access to equipment, and evacuation arrangements. The chargé in Addis Ababa continued dealing with the Ethiopian Foreign Ministry. American ambassadorial representation returned in 1978, then a succession of chargés headed the embassy from 1980 until 1992. Marc Baas’s presentation of ambassadorial credentials on 24 June 1992 changed the level of representation after the Derg’s fall. [4] [5]

Development, Regional Security, and Political Rights

After the Derg’s defeat in 1991, the relationship gradually developed around humanitarian relief, development, and regional security. Ethiopia’s role in peacekeeping and operations against al-Shabaab in Somalia gave Washington reasons to cooperate. Food insecurity, health, and education also brought extensive American assistance. Yet restrictions on political participation and human rights complicated engagement and prompted congressional conditions on some aid. Security cooperation and development assistance did not resolve disagreements about how Ethiopia was governed. [8]

War in northern Ethiopia in 2020 severely strained those ties. Federal forces and their allies fought Tigrayan forces amid widespread atrocities and a major humanitarian crisis. Washington restricted assistance and pressed for a negotiated end to the conflict. On 1 January 2022, it terminated Ethiopia’s eligibility for African Growth and Opportunity Act trade preferences, citing grave human rights violations during the fighting. [9] [10]

The African Union led the peace talks hosted in Pretoria in 2022. Former Nigerian president Olusegun Obasanjo, former Kenyan president Uhuru Kenyatta, and former South African deputy president Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka facilitated the process. The November agreement provided for an end to hostilities, humanitarian access, and restoration of services; the AU acknowledged American support. [11]

The aftermath still required difficult negotiations over relief and accountability. American food assistance was paused during much of 2023 following concerns about diversion and resumed in December. The January 2024 congressional assessment described efforts to improve bilateral relations while conflicts elsewhere in Ethiopia and continuing human rights concerns remained unresolved. [9]

Related Reading

• Ethiopian Troops Close Kagnew Station [4]